According to LaBerge and Samuels, what does slow, labored, word-by-word reading indicate?

Slow, labored, word-by-word reading is typically a strong indicator of a lack of word automaticity. Word automaticity refers to the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. When readers struggle to process words automatically, it often results in a stilted and laborious pace of reading, which can hinder overall comprehension and make reading less enjoyable.

This is significant because automaticity allows readers to focus on understanding the meaning of the text rather than getting bogged down by the mechanics of reading. The skill to recognize words without conscious effort is foundational for fluent reading, enabling individuals to develop better comprehension abilities over time.

In contrast, while gaps in comprehension skills or vocabulary knowledge may contribute to challenges in reading, they do not specifically account for the slow, laborious nature of word-by-word reading exemplified in this context. Additionally, overreliance on context clues might indicate a reader's strategy for dealing with unknown words but does not directly explain the laborious reading pace itself.